The paper,
"'Ariyar' in the Ancient Tamil Literature" has been presented in the
following seminars / conferences and published details are given as follows:
A paper presented
at the Indian History Congress, Calcutta.
Summary published in the Proceedings of the Indian
History Congress, Calcutta, 1990, p.165.
A paper presented at the Seminar of "The Aryan
Problem" held at Bangalore in July 1991.
Published in the proceedings of "Seminar on
the Aryan Problem", The Mythic Society and The Bharatriya Itihasa Sankalana
Samiti, Bangalore, 1991, pp.215-225.
Published in "The Aryan Problem" by
Bharatiya Itihasa Sankalana Samiti, Pune, 1993, pp.75-80.
1. Introduction: Ever since the advent of
"Ariyar" in Indian history, the word "Aryan" has assumed
significance and far-fetching linguistic and racial connotations. Then came the
advent of "Dravidians". Caldwell's linguistic invention was given a
racial twist by the westerners and Indian scholars, though the concept of race
and language are two separate entities. Leaving these hypotheses and theories
aside, an attempt is made in this paper to study the word "Ariyar"
fund in the ancient Tamil literature, popularly known as Tamil Sangam
literature. In the process of understanding the past, there have been persistent
and insistent attempts in historiography to import later day ideas, concepts
and theories to reflect back on the past events leading to diversified and
contradicting situation. But, here the approach has been restricted to get the
meaning of the word "Ariyar" as found in the ancient Tamil
literature.
2. In the ancient Tamil literature, the word
"Ariyar", "Ariyan", "Ariya" etc., found in
various places withy their other forms and have been used both as nouns and
adjectives. As in recent times, diametrically opposite views have been
expressed1 about the inclusion of the Tamil epics Cilappatikaram and
Manimekalai within the ambit of Sangam literature, the discussion is restricted
to Ettutogai (the eight anthologies), Pattupattu (the Ten poems) and Padinen
Kizh Kanakku (the Eighteen Minor works). Now, let us see, what these poems say
about "Ariyar".
3. Natrinai: It is the heading the list of
Ettuttogai and its general theme is love. The word "Ariyar" appears
in the 170th poem, sung by an unknown poet. The companion of the heroin of the
poem warts that the hero might be seduced by the beautiful lonely dancing girl.
She compares the victory of the Virali (the dancer), who came to a festival
clad in a leaf-garment, over her group to the fact that the famous town of Mullur,
the "Ariya" soldiers swarmed, but ran away before the lance-battalion
of Malayan (a Cheran), who unsheathed a shining sword and attacked with his
large army. From this, we can see that the people who came from the north to
attack Cheras were known as "Ariyar".
4. Kuruntogai: Literally meaning `a collection of
short poems', it comes next and its theme is also love. The word
"Ariyar" appears in the verse 7, line 3. Here, it is described how
"Ariyars" dance on a tied rope according to the beatings of a drum.
"The forest full of bamboos were rattled the white ripe seeds of shivering
vakai tree (Sirisa tree) tossed by the wind like the drumming of the
"Ariyar" dancing on the rope". Therefore, here it is evident
that "Ariyar" refers to a group of jugglers or tumblers, who
performed acrobatics.
5. Paditruppattu (the Ten tens): It gives more
information about `Ariyar' in historical setting. The entire extant collection
of poems with the deeds and exploits of the Chera Kings. The first and tenth
Tens are not available. In the Second Ten, the Patigam (Preface) describes how
Imayavaramban Nedunjeraladhan engraved his royal sign `bow', which figures on
his flag, on the top of the Himalayas (lines 4-7). Having roaring oceans has
his boundaries (imizh kadal velittamizhagam), he ruled Tamizhagam (the Tamil
country) in such a way o excel the other nadus (countries). He made `Ariyar'
bow before him, who were having very great name (fame and heritage).
5.1. In the Second Ten, the 11th verse details as
how the very famous Himalayas abound with "Ariyas". Hence, scholars
give two different meanings for the `Ariyar':
`Ariyar" = Munivar (rishis) and
"Ariyar' = `Ariya mannar' ( Aryan kings) .
The hillside was resplendent with densely and well
grown trees of erthrina indica (mullu murukka), a kind of citrus and the yak
sleeping there would dream of waterfalls and sweet smelling grass. The
Himalayas with such fertility was filled with many rishis. In between the
Himalayas (in the north) and Kumari in the South, there wee Kings who boasted
their valour but they were conquered by Nedunjeraladhan. The meaning is thus
rendered, "You quelled the valour of those who called themselves monarchs
of the land between Camorin in the South and the famous Himalayas, where the
Ariyas2 abound and yak sleeps on the hills covered thick with the Oleander and
dreams of the broad mountain stream and the narandam (lemon-grass)"
5.2. In fifth Ten, the patigam mentions `vadavar',
i,e, the people of north and `Ariya Annal' i.e, head of Ariya Kings. It describes
how the kings of the north were afraid of Kadal Prakkottiya Senguttuvan. He
marched with his army to bring a good stone for chiseling an image of the
goddess of chastity. He came across a head or chief of Ariya Kings, while
passing through forests, and defeated him. Then, he brought a stone and washed
it in waters of the Ganges. While coming back, he stayed at Irumbil, destroyed
Viyaur and Kodungur. He also killed a king named Pazhaiyon.
5.3. In the same fifth Ten, the 43rd verse mentions
the defeat of kings who were ruling between the Himalayas in the north and
Kumari in the south as boundaries. However, the names of the kings or the
countries thus defeated are not given in the poem. In the padigam, the kings
are mentioned as the `vadavar' (the Kings of north), the Chiefs of `Ariyar' are
called `Ariya Annal', but here they are generally mentioned as `Ariya arasar',
i.e, the Kings between the Himalayas and Kumari.
5.4. In Seventh Ten, the 68th poem narrates how the
people who were living in the north or northern direction, were leading a
fearless and happy life. The expression used to denote them is `vadapula
vazhnar'.
5.5. So from the description of Paditruppattu, we
can see that `Ariyar' are –
ó `the Kings of the north',
ó `Rishis of the Himalayas',
ó `the Kings between the boundaries of Himalayas
and Kumari' and
ó `the people of the north or northern direction of
Tamilagam'.
6. Agananuru (or Neduntogai): It also gives more
details about `Ariyar'. `Ariyars' capture elephants by the use of trained
female elephants. A public woman takes a vow that she would chain her hero with
her hair just as the `Ariyar' make the wild elephant domesticated with the
she-elephant. Mullaippattu throws light on their employment by the kings of
Tamilagam to train elephants.
6.1. In another poem, a harlot wishes her bangles
may be broken just like the army of `Ariyars', which was defeated by the
Kurumba bowmen who fought under the Cholas, with their shower of arrows,
victorious spears and the black buckler. Here, also the names of the defeated
`Ariyars' are not given, but it is mentioned that they were defeated at Vallam
(Tanjore).
6.2. Paranar3 in his poem eulogises Senguttuvan
that he attacked the Aryar so as to make them scream, carved his emblem bow on
the very famous mountain and chained the ferocious Kings. Here one can notice
that the name of the mountain is not specified and it is mentioned in singular.
As Himalayas are always mentioned in plural to denote a chain of mountains, a
doubt arises as to whether the poet actually alludes to the Himalayas or to a
certain `very famous, ancient and well grown' mountain situated north of
Tamizhagam in those days.
6.3. Agam.386 narrates how an Ariya wrestler was
defeated by one Panan. The Ariya wrestler was known as `Ariya Porunan' and
Panan was another wrestler, whose state was in the north of Tamizgagam
(Agam.325). Panan wrestled with Ariya Porunan and crushed his shoulders and
arms, the sight of which made Kanaiyan, the commander of Chera army, feel
ashamed.
6.5. So, according to Agananuru, `Ariyar' were –
ó the people who captured and trained elephants,
ó who got defeated by the Cholas at Vallam,
ó who were the Kings of the north, conquered and
chained by Senguttuvan and
ó who were in possession of a mountain where gold
was available.
As there was a wrestler known as `Ariya Porunan',
the name should imply either that he was an Ariya or he came from the north.
But, it should be noted that Panan, who defeated Ariya Porunan and came from a
state situated north of Tamizhagam, was not given the prefix of `Ariya'.
Therefore, it is evident that there were Ariya wrestlers, just like Ariya
jugglers, tumblers or rope dancers, elephant trainers and trainers in
Tamizhagam.
7. Purananuru: In one poem4, Kovur Kizhar, a Tamil
poet, describes how the kings of north were afraid of Cholan Naklankilli that
they were spending their nights without sleep. Marudanila Naganar, another
poet5 describes how Pandiyan Kudakartattutunjiya Maran Vazhudi was having a
chariot to wage a fierce war to kill the kings of north (vadapula mannar).
Actually, the poet eulogises Maran Vazhudi who is said to have caused `northern
kings to fade'. But, particular given about the names of such northern kings or
countries and the place or places where he defeated them in the battles are not
at all given. There is a mention6 of a type of a sandal paste of `northern
mountain' (vadakundrattuchandanam), Agananuru also refers to this7. But here
also, the name of the northern mountain is not mentioned. Thre important point
to be noted is, though the expressions `vadapulattarasar', `vadapulamannar' and
`vadakundram' are used to denote the kings of the north and northern mountain,
the prefix `Ariyar' is conspicuously missing. Therefore, it is very evident
that there were northern kings and northern mountains other than Ariya kings of
north and northern mountain of `Ariyar'.
8. Non-Tamilian people of North: In the case of
non-Tamilian people, specific names have been mentioned like Kosar8, Moriyar9,
Nandar10, Tondaiyar11, and Vadugar12. Kosars belonged to Tulu country and they
were living south of the Vindhya and near the shores of western ocean. Nandar
and Moriyar are no others but the Nandas and Mauryas of north India. Tondaiyars
were found in the forests of Vengadam hills where elephants were abundant. So
they went on expeditions, captured, trained and formed them into a brigade. The
trained elephants brought firewood to the Rishis and they ate the food of their
country only. From this, we can infer that Tondaiyars were having similar
vocation like Ariyars, as far as elephants are concerned. Vadugar were having
their lands beyond Vengadam and they spoke a different language. Another point
to be noted is that at one place (Puram. 378), the Vadugars are denoted as `vada
vadugar'. The term `vadugar' connotes that they were from the north and hence
the expression `vada vadugar' is very significant, as it actually denotes
`northern group of northerners'. This can be compared with the expression `vada
Ariyar' and vadavariyar" denoting `northern Ariyar', but such expressions
are found in Silappathikaram and not in the Sangam literature taken for
discussion. But the important point to be noted is the usage of `Ariyar', while
the word `Ariyar' is generally used to denote the people of north or the kings
of north, the above mentioned words Kosar, Nandar, Moriyar, Tondaiyar and
Vadugar are used to denote only particular groups of people who lived in the
north of Tamizhagam.
9. Arya and Ariya suffixes and prefixs: Epigraphic,
numismatic and literary evidences are abundant to show that the Sathavahanas
were ruling in the north of Tamizhagam with their intruding territories
extended up to Caddalore. The important point which should be mentioned here is
that the `Arya' endings in the names of the donees are found only in the grants
coming from the territory immediately south of river Krishna (The Kondamudi,
the Mayadavolu, the Hira Hadagalli, the Kanteru Nandivarman I and the Mattapad
grants). `Arya' (venerable) as honorific prefix to the names of Buddhist and
Jain teachers and saints occurs in inscriptions all over India. Indeed the
Tamil epic Manumekhalai mentions Buddha as `Ariyan' (25-6). `Arya' as an
honorific title is found in the Hathigumpa inscription of Kharavela13. `Arya' as
initial part of personal names occur in Junnar inscription inscription14
(Ayama), and in the Nagarjunakonda inscription15 (Ayakotosiri) and Ayasiri,
names of royal ladies. `Aryadeva' is the name of the celebrated disciple16 of
Nagarjuna (3rd cent. CE), who spent a greater part of his life in Andhradesha.
But the earliest inscription to exhibit names with Arya-ending is the Kondamudi
grant of Jayavarman (3rd cent.CE), where all doinees have names ending with
`aja', as also found in the same manner in the Mayadavola and Mattapad grants.
9.1. `Aja' is another form of Prakrit `Arya',
Sanskrit `Arya' and Tamil `Ayya', `Iyya', `Iyer' and `Ariyar'. `Ariyar' or
`Ariya' started as an honorific prefix anmd become a name-ending much the same
way as `sri' found in many inscriptions. And we can find the same trend in
Tamil literature, as in `Ariya Annal' (Head or chiuef of Ariya Kings), `Ariya
Porunan' (Arya wrestler), `Ariya Arasan Bragadattan'17 (Ariya king named
Bragadattan) and `Ariya Arasan Yazh Brahmadattan'18 (Ariya king poet
Brahmadattan). The word `Ayyar' or `Iyer' is found in many places in ancient
Tamil literature including Tolkappiyam19, which is considered as the oldest
extant Tamil work. It is used to represent a teacher, brother, priest, saint,
andanan (Brahmana), superior, master or king, with veneration.
10. `Ariake': A reference to Periplus' `Ariaca' and
Ptolemy's `Ariake' has to be made, as it has direct bearing on the discussion
of `Ariyar' of the ancient Tamil literature. About the name `Ariaca' of the
Periplus, W. H. Scoff opines: "the word in the text is very
uncertain". Lassen thinks that the name Sanskrit `Latica' (pronounced
Larica) and included the land on both sides of the gulf of Cambay20. Ptolemy
(c.140 CE) calls the first province of Tamil country going down from the north
as `Lymyrice or Dymirike'. He and the author of Periplus use it only as the
name of the Chera territory. The country north of it was to them `Ariake',
belongoing to the Aryas, in the restricted sense of Marathas. Taking the other
forms `Ariake Sadinon' and `Ariake of the Pirates', they could easily have made
out that `Ariake' referred to the country later known as the Maharastra, then
ruled over by the Satavahana kings of the Andhra dynasty21. Therefore, it is
evident that Ariake or Aricca denotes `Akam' or the country of Ariyar who were
ruling or living immediately north of Dymirike or Tamizagam.
11. Himalayas of Ariyar: We have seen how some
Tamil kings marched towards the Himalayas to bring stones or to defeat the
kings in between the `Himalayas' and `Kumari', and inscribed their royal
emblems on it. Already it has been pointed out that the poets considered
`Himalayas' as single Tall Mountain. From various expressions like `very
famous, ancient and well grown' mountain (Agam.396), `tall mountain with gold'
(Agam.398), `a big stone' (Puram.171) and a `tall mountain' (Puram.61), even
without naming the mountain, it is evident that the poets coisidered `Imaiyam'
or `Imayam' was a single mountain situated north of Tamizhagam. `Imam' means
snow, that is why, the Himalayas are called so. But, in the Tamil literature,
wherever the name `Imayam' is not mentioned, it is also not mentioned that the
`tall, ancient, very famous and stony' mountain with gold is covered with snow.
Everybody knows that Himalayas are indeed very famous, ancient and `several
series of more or less parallel or converging ranges'. Also the poets have not
given the details how the kings climbed up the `Himalayas', cut the required
stone, brought it down, etc., except that `he washed it in the waters of
Ganges'. Therefore, it is evident that whenever the name `Imayam' is not
mentioned, we have to take it as a mountain that was situated in the north of
Tamizhagam.
12. Non-Tamil kings of north: The Hathigumpha inscription
of Kharavela, a king of Kalinga and a contemporary of the third or fifth king
of the Satavahana line, is the only epigraphic reference to the kingdoms of the
Tamil country after the Asoka inscription. Kharavela ruled Kalinga in the first
half of the second century BCE and in the eleventh year of hid reign (c.155
BCE), he is said to have destroyed a confederacy of Tamil states – Tramiradesa
sanghatanam [(T®mira, Damira or Tamila] – which was 113 years old (113+17) at
the time and had been a source of danger22. The Satavahanas were ruling,
starting with the first king Simukha around 230 BCE, in the north of Tamizhagam
with the lineage of Kanha (.207-189 BCE), Sri Satakarni I, Satakarni II
(c.166), Hala (c. 20-24 CE), Sri Yajna Satakarni (c.170-199) and others. Before
that, the Asokan empire was extending up to Sravanabelagola covering the areas
of the Cholas. He died in 232 BCE and his successor Brihadratha was killed by
Pushyamitra Sunga in 185 BCE. The Sunga dynasty continued up to 73 BCE.
Therefore, during the reign of these kings of north, no Tamil king could have
crossed over to Ganges or Himalayas without encountering them. If the Tamil
kings would have actually defeated or conquered the kings of north, as
mentioned in the Tamil literature, definitely, there would be some cross
reference in their description. But, unfortunately no such reference has been
pointed out so far. Moreover, a careful study of ancient Tamil literature
clearly shows that the geography of Tamizhagam is restricted between Vengadam
in the north and Kumari in the south. This has been repeatedly mentioned by the
poets and the later commentators. Therefore, if any Tamil king had conquered or
defeated any Aryan king or king or north, he might have defeated an Andhra king
of his time.
13. `Ariyar' denotes what? From the foregoing
discussion about the word `Ariyar' and its forms mentioned in the ancient Tamil
literature, it is evident that they would come under the following categories:
`Ariyar' are –
1. the people who were living immediately north of
Tamizhagam or Vengadam.
2. the kings who were ruling immediately north of
Tamizhagam or Vengadam.
3. the jugglers, tumblers, rope-dancers or acrobats
of Tamizhagam.
4. the Rishis or saints of northern mountain of
Tamizhagam or Himalayas.
5. the elephant captors and / or trainers.
6. the groups or kings who waged wars against Tamil
kings or chiefs coming from north.
7. ]the honorific title `Ariya' was used to respect
certain professionals like wresrtlers, poets or king-cum-poets of Tamizhagam.
14. Were the `Ariyar' foreigners? A reference has
already been made about non-Tamil people coming from the north of Tamizhagam,
who were specifically mentioned as Kosar, Moriyar, Nandar, Tondaiyar and
Vadugar. There have been many specific references to Romans and Greeks
collectively called as `yavanar' by the Tamilians. Their habits, dress,
behaviour etc., are clearly described and explained to show that they were
foreigners. The word `milechar' is specifically found in Mullaippattu;
"Within the elegant well-lit inner apartment, adorned with tiger-chains of
skilled workmanship, well clad dumb milechas (who make themselves understood by
signs) attend the king, who spends night absorbed in thought of (coming)
battle23. The mention about the employment of milechas as bodyguards is very
significant, because unless the king had so much of confidence about his
safety, he would not have appointed the foreigners as his bodyguards. And if
the `Ariyar' mentioned were actually milechas or foreigners, they would have
been described and treated differently by the Tamil poets. Though the poets
repeatedly mention that the boundaries of this land were Himalayas in the
north, Kumari in the south, Kuna kadal (eastern ocean), in the east and Kuda
kadal (western ocean) in the west and that `Ariyar' were the people or kings of
the north of Tamizhagam, nowhere they have been mentioned that they were
foreigners and that they came from outside the boundaries enumerated by them.
Except in the references about the encounters between them and Tamilian Kings
or chiefs, in all other places, they were treated as the people of Tamizhagam.
Even in the case of battles among the Tamil kings, chieftains and particularly,
Chera, Chola and Pandyas, elaborate details have been given as to how they
fought with each other, killed others, destroyed the lands and towns, captured
cattle, men and women, collected their booty, seized the crowns and gold (which
in turn to be given to the pots) etc. But, surprisingly such details of
after-battle exploits and booties are not given in the case of defeat of
`Ariyar'. So it is not known why and how they were spared even after their
defeat. Many cases of Sati committed by the wives of killed Tamililan kings and
chieftains have been specifically mentioned. Even Imayavaramban Nedunjeraladhan
fought a war with the contemporary Chola king, in which both the monarchs lost
their lives and their queens performed sati. But, surprisingly, there are no
mentions of killing of `Ariyar' kings and of performing of sati by their
queens. Therefore, really, it is very intriguing as to why and how such
benevolent and lenient treatment was given to the defeated, conquered and
captured `Ariyan' kings by the Tamil poets and kings. In any case, it is
evident that the `Ariyar' were not foreigners.
15. Conclusion: In the study of ancient Tamil
literature, with a view to find out the meaning and position of `Ariyar' as
mentioned in their context, it has been pointed out that `Ariyar' were the
people or kings of north of Tamizhagam and also of Tamizghagam considering the
various descriptions of them. Literary evidences of ancient Tamizhagam with
other epigraphic, numismatic and literary evidences of contemporary kings of
Maurya, Kalinga and Satavahana show that the exploits of Tamil kings were
perhaps restricted to the boundaries of the ancient Tamizhagam and the defeat
of `Ariya' or northern king or kings refers to the defeat of Andhra king or
kings. The word `Ariya' was also used as an honorific title to certain
professionals, besides the generic usage to denote the people of the land with
the boundaries of Himalayas. As the names Kosar, Nandar, Moriar, Tondaiyar and
Vadugar have been used to indicate individual groups of north, and the name
`Ariya' is used to denote the people or kings who were living or ruling
immediately in the north of Tamizhagam, it is very evident that no racial
connotation was given to `ariyar' by the ancient Tamils.
Notes and References
K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India,
Oxford University Press, Third edition, Madras, p.115. He holds that the Sangam
literature is that which belongs to first three or four centuries A. D,.
P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar, History of Tamils, Madras,
1929, p.225. He opines that it is absurd to include the two epics in the Sangam
literature,
V. Ramachandra Dikshitar, Studies in Tamil
literature and History, Luzac & Co., London, 1930, p.26says that the two
epics may be included in the list of Sangam literature.
P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar, op.cit., p.503.
Agananuru – 396: 16-18.
Purananuru – 31.
Ibid – 52.
Ibid – 378.
Agananuru – 340.
Agananuru – 15, 90, 113, 196, 216, 251, 262;
Purananuru – 169, 396;
Kuruntogai – 15, 73.
Puram – 175; Agam – 69, 281, 251.
10. Agam-251 (Nandan), 265 (Nandar).
11. Agam-213, Kuruntogai-260,
Perumbanatruppadai-450-454.
12. Agam-107, 213, 253, 181, 195, 385, 391;
Kuruntogai-11.
13. "Aira maharaja kharavela".
14. Archaeological Survey of western India, Vol.
iv, p.103, No.18.
15. Ins. L. E. T, Vol.xxi.
16. K. A. Nolakanta Sastri has interpreted
`Ayamani' as "aryadeva', Journal of Oriental Research, X-13, 96, ff.
17. Kurinchipatu, Nachinarkkiniyar's commentary.
18. He has sung the 184th poem of Kuruntogai.
19. Tolkappiyam, III-143.2, 144, 29.
20. Quoted by K. N. Sivaraja Pillai, The Chronology
of the Early Tamils, University of Madras, Madras, 1932.
21. P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar, op.cit., p.318.
22. K. A. Nilakanda Sastri, op.cit., p.115.
23. J. M. Somasundara Pillai, A History of Tamil
Literature, Annamalainagar, 1967, p.240.
Ancient Tamil works consulted (Primary sources).
Ettuttogai
Natrinai.
Kuruntogai.
Ingurunuru.
Paditruppattu.
Paripadal.
Kalittogai.
Agananuru.
Purananuru
Others
Tolkappiyam.
Silappadikaram.
Manimekhalai.
Padinenkizhkanakku
Naladiyar.
Porunatruppadai.
Iniyadhu narpadu.
Inna narpadu.
kalavazhi narpadu.
kar narpadu.
Indhinai Imbadu.
Indinai Ezhubadu.
Tinaimozhi Imbadu.
Tinaimozhi utraimbadu.
Tirukkural.
Tirikadugam.
Asarkkovai.
Pazhamozhi.
Sirupanchamulam.
Mudumozhikanchi.
Eladhi.
Kainilai.
Pattuppattu
Tirumurugatruppadai.
Porunatruppadai.
Sirupanatruppadai.
Perumbanatruppadai.
Mullaippattu.
Maduraikanchi.
Nedunalvadai.
Kurinchippattu.
Pattinapattu.
10. Malaipadukadam.
